Farmers in early societies

Agriculture requires people to settle at a place. It restricts movement, though, it doesn't mean that it requires lesser work. Food supply based on hunting was erratic, depending on the hunting skills, hunt availability and luck of the hunters. Hunters need to move from one place to another in search of their preys. Whereas farmers need to stay at one place till harvest is over. Hunting process is much more dependent on hunting skills rather than amount of effort a hunter put in. Thus, even to learn hunting required considerable time. Agriculture, provided a better alternative for people where hunt was not available in large quantity. Farming requires more effort but lesser movement. Farmers needed to build a small settlement near their farms and took care of their harvest from the wild animals. Farming in this sense was more of a complete day and night work with fewer breaks, whereas hunting expeditions were limited to some part of a day or some part of a month.

Early settlements resulted due to agriculture also resulted in one other side effect. Before agriculture originated, human population was limited by lesser growth rate as human couples were continuously travelling. Movement prohibited long time of courtship or intercourse. Also, pregnant females used to hamper the group movement, thus, this was also in large avoided by the group. Reproduction was usually alligned with seasons of high food availability, as it is even done in other animals. Season with high food availability provided more time for courting couples as group didn't need to move to much in search of food. Females spent long intervals between two consecutive pregnancies, as it ensured that females of the group are in good health to keep in pace with group's speed. Also, it provided human child more care till they grow up enough to move with their groups. Long intervals and restricted time for reproduction ensured that human population maintained a slower growth rate.
Agricultural societies had much more time for reproduction activities. People were staying at one place for a long time, so it was natural that they indulged in sexual activities more frequently. Also, food was available with reasonable surity than there hunters counterparts. Females had no restriction to keep a long interval as movement was not required. This all resulted in population explosion.
Some of the early socities adapted a balance of hunting and farming. Some adapted traveller farmers. They used to clear the land by buring the trees in that place and grow their plants for some seasons till that soil was no longer fertile. There were some highly fertile areas which were located near any river valley or delta region, where soil used to regain its fertile power due to natural processes. These areas were the first to have huge permanent settlements of humans. Early farming societies used allign their reproduction with their harvesting season. Sexual activities were encouraged at a particular time in the year so that birth of babies didn't hamper labour availability during the time when they need to cut their harvest in the farms. Sumerian societies had a priest led system to organise huge orgy to achieve this. Every early agricultural society had rituals having sexual activities to control time of birth of newborns.

Evolution of society (continue)

Now, we move to the area surrounding caspian sea and black sea. This region contains many 'stan's born out of broken USSR, Russia, Ukraine, Turkey and some east european countries. Though, I think I shouldn't club these two regions together as there features are in sharp contrast to each other. Areas surrounding black sea are highly fertile whereas east of caspian constitutes barren pamir plateau regions. But clubing them together gives a better picture of possible paths, ancient human groups could have followed. Arabian desert, pamir plateau, himalayas make it difficult for a small group of humans mainly travelling on their foots, to move straight eastwards after coming out of africa. It also divides the world in three separate fertile bowls; middle east, India, China.
Black sea region is another fertile bowl which is placed in between middle east, europe and east asia. Caspian sea region effectively diverts the passage from middle east asian areas towards north, black sea region. Black sea region, with huge fertile plains offered another hotspot for dense society. Critical group size here was 100-500. Whereas, caspian sea region had critical group size lying around 20-100. Caspian region didn't present favorable conditions for a permanent settlement as it doesn't even now. Here, human groups had keep on the move in search of green patches, akin to desert nomads. Domestication of animals for transport was necesary for these nomads. Desert human nomads responded it with domesticating camels and nomads around caspian responded it with horses. Black sea region with dense groups population and vantage point, became hotspot for trade.
Human groups entered europe from africa following arab desert, then north, passing in between black and caspian sea, and then turning west. Europe with its fertile soil, dense forests and cold climate presented a kind of paradise for hunter gatherer societies which were coming out from deserts. This might had been a negative boost for permanent settlements and agrarian societies. Farming, initially might not had been favored as preys were abundant. It might had been the same case for human groups living in african forests. Deserts are not favorable for farming anyway. So, fertile plain near black sea were the first areas where agriculture started as it was the only area which present fertile land and scarcity of wild prey animals. Both these factors turned the table in favor of agrarian societies compared to hunting-gatherers. Farming starting from south of black sea spread to north then to other areas in east. Farming might have originated in China separately, as it is too far distanced from black sea region with huge barren landscape in between. Farmers were considered of lower status than hunters, initially. This struggle may be compared to class struggles between european nobles and workers in 14-16th century. Farming might be initiated only by women as hunting in some socities is still considered as manly work. As the growing population increased the importance of agriculture for generating food, farming might have shifted hands from women to slaves. Even in the roman era, slaves were doing work on farms whereas their owners went for wars and hunting.

Evolution of society

As coperation is the best startegy for smaller animals to survive on this planet, many species evolved to utilized their numbers to defend themselves from large predators, to hunt for food and work more efficiently. Example of this, starts from algae to humans.
If an animal is large and strong, coperation takes a back stage and aggression takes its place. Most of the large predators stay alone. For herbivores, even size may not be restriction but for carnivores, its as if a rule that larger you are loner you be. Survival of carnivores depends on their skill to hunt their prey which makes aggression as a necessary trait for them. Aggression is needed to overpower their prey. Thus, more aggressive an animal (carnivores), more will it be able to hunt. This aggression will be a guarantee for a good hunter and thus continuous supply for food. Here, nature plays its part in making aggressive trait as a necessary condition to survive and as time passes, this trait become more and more prominent. Aggression, as negative effect reduces the coperation among the same species.

Now, consider the scenario, when nature was full of life and preys were abundant. Aggressive carnivores flourished and coperation died among them. This scenario may also seems to result in more coperation as competition was non-existent. Herbivores or other animal for whom aggression is not the key may opt for coperation whether competition exists or not. Coperation in herbivores as well in carnivores increases the efficiency of food collection but if this efficiency doesn't offer much advantage then nature doesn't give special preference to this trait. When aggression is selected preferentially than coperation in carnivores with no competition, animal (carnivores) stay alone, as aggression among them result in grouping very difficult.

As the preys go down and competition increases, even a small advantage in collecting food becomes preferential. Competition also results in infighting among species. Advantages of coperation in this case may be counted as defence against the same species, dividing the society in small small groups to defend and fight among each other. Also, hunting in groups, give them advantage than the loners. Nature selects for coperation also and what we get a balance of aggression and coperation among carnivores.

Group psychology differ from a lone hunter. Nature will give preference for stronger groups who can hunt better. Numbers here appears to be an advantage. More the number, more be the hunt. But again, number offers a two way sword, as number rises, need for food also increases. This gives rise to a critical size above which a group looses its advantage of numbers. This critical size depends on the surrounding environment and availability of food. Rough terrains with scarce food available, have smaller critical size than the fertile plains. Here, other factors such as presence of other hostile species may also effect this size.

Now, with this we can prepare a mathematical model for calculating the critical size of a group of particular species which may survive in a particular region. I will not go in maths too much as generating this model will require so much of data which I don't have. I will just compare the different regions and critical size of a human group which may exist their.

I will start from southern african regions which lie near to equator, have warm climate with frequent rains and all weather forests. This climate and rich flora makes this region an ideal place for all herbivores. This also make it a good hunting ground for carnivore animals like humans. Ancestors of humans, apes have this as an ideal place for living. Though food-wise this region seems good, this also attract predators. Rich flora makes this land unaccessible for two leg animals like humans. Apes and monkeys have acrobatic abilities which makes them more suited for this kind of region than humans. Constraints to movement make hunting very difficult for human as well making them a easy prey for four legged predators. Also, there are many small insects and bugs which make life difficult for slow humans in this region. Critical size for a human group which can survive here, comes out very low. This size should be large enough to help humans in hunting for their food, as well defend themselves against different predators. In the same place it should not be too large that it may act as a constraint to movement for a group or make them more visible to attract different predators from large to small. This critical size may lie in between 10 to 50. The density of population also becomes limited as different groups keep on moving and control a large territory.

Now, desert regions of north africa presents a completely different picture of landscape. Scarcity of water and extreme temperatures make life impossible in this region. Flora is scarce and limited to some wet areas which lie in patches throughout the desert with long distance in between them. Large amount of body hairs which act as protection as well keeping a constant body temperature in equator region become a negative trait in dry and hot desert. First, sand particles entangled in hairs result in rashes, second hairs don't allow body to cool down in extremely hot climate. So, humans adapt this will very thin hairs though in larger numbers. Hairs still act as a protection in cold winters and nights of desert. Survival in this region also needs more numbers, so, group can gather food from a larger area. Threat of predator is less here, also, land movement doesn't have any constraint due to two legs. Size and stamina become crucial as these enable humans to cover more area thus collect more food. Group size is only limited by the speed of humans. Even a large group can't cover more area if humans can't walk to that distance. In equator region, movement was necessary for defending against predators but in desert movement becomes necessary for collecting food. Movement in equator regions was limited to a particular territories but in desert, scarcity of food make defined territories impossible. Human group needs to keep on moving in search of food and group shoul be able to gather food from one area in few days. Gathering and saving becomes necessary. Very small group may not guarantee constant supply of food and large groups will not be able to sustain itself with limited food. Here, critical size of a human group may lie in between 25-100. The density of population here is highly restricted as different groups keep on moving for food in a very large territory. Even the different territories often are so far each other that groups don't have any contact with each other.

West of north african region lies arabian desert. This area though have similar climate as of north africa, differs in one aspect. In arabian desert, the density of wet patches is little bit higher than in north africa. There are some river plains, also marshy areas are present in north west and south part of arab. These small patches of fertile lands make it possible to increase the critical group size even further. With the added advantage of farming, critical group size in this region hovers in between 50-500. No wonder, first human cities were evolved here. Due to higher density of fertile patches compared to sahara, population density is little bit higher than sahara region but more or less restricted to some fertile patches only. Though, distance between these patches were less than the saharan thus motivating some group of people here to indulge in continuous trade with different groups.

Moving to indian region presents another variation here. This land is surrounded by rough, cold peaks himalayas from north and sea from south. More of its a bowl of life, with land varing climates existing in short distance. Northern parts are cold and covered with icy peaks of mountains. A short distance in south, lies the sindhu-ganges plains and in east lies full year blooming forests. Below this region, there are Thar desert, arid Kutch, tropical forests. Next level in south have a mix of tropical forests, arid lands, deccan plateau and coastal areas. Deep sputh contains forests and climate similar to equator regions as of africa with added marshy patches near coastal regions. The huge variation in climate makes large movement of human group difficult. Middle plains have large fertile lands which can provide food for large human groups. Deep south also have a fair share of fertile land. But the area in between and extreme north are not supportive for large groups. So, it provides a right mix for large cities and trade by smaller groups. Human groups adapted to desert life are more suited for continuous movement thus making them more adapt for carring out trading. Himalayas and ocean provide a good defense from any incursion from other parts of the world, before the development of other means of transportation. Size of group is only limited here by the human movement. Critical size of human groups lies around 25-500. Here, population density, depending on the area were comparitively higher, specifically large river plains had many groups scattered in that area. Trade also proliferated as different groups were in continuous contact.

Moving in to north china again presents with varing climate from cold and dry north west to fertile south east. This land is also isolated from other parts of world by the hard terrains in north and north west and by ocean in south and east. South-eastern part contains a very fertile land. Southern part extends upto the indonesian archipelago which is covered with tropical forests. In west Himalaya divides the region and in north-west pamir plateau isolate china from rest. North west region have a very rough weather and presents really harsh living conditions. Fertile lands were having critical size of groups around 50-500 and northern parts were having critical group size as 10-100. Southern part, having higher popular density, helped in proliferation of trade.

Ice Age

Reading the book "Ice Age" by John & Mary Gribbin, was really revealing. In this book author have put some light on continuously fluctuating climate of earth. One of the factor mentioned is Earth's movement in space, on its axis, around barycenter, around sun. Barycenter is the center of gravitational center between Earth and the Moon. In layman's language, it will be balancing point of a seesaw, if we put Earth on one side and Moon on other. This center, as you might have already guessed, lies about 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) below Earth's surface. Earth rotates on its axis, wobbles around pericenter like a spin top, changes its angle of inclination, revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit. This orbit also changes its ellipticity as Sun changes its position from center of ellipse to move in one side. Maximum change in ellipticity in Earth's orbit is considered when Sun moves from the center around five percent of distance between apogee and perigee. Current ellipticity is one percent. After considering all these movements, frequency of ice age comes around 1,00,000 for large cycle and around 11,000 years for smaller cycle.
Still, there are many other motions of Earth which are still not considered in this equation. For example, our solar system itself is moving towards Cygnus constellation, having Denab and one black hole. Our solar system is also revolving around milky way galaxy's center, addition to this solar system is also spinning in and out of milky way plane. Milky way itself is moving. These motions were neglected as it was considered that they don't have much impact on Earth's climate and also at that time, without the computers calculating their effect was too cumbersome. Out of these motions, revolution of solar system around milky way center has a time period of 220 million years. These motions don't have any effect on the heat recieved by the Earth from the Sun but as the equation pointed out that hot summers or cold winters don't make much difference but its the cold summers and warm winters do the trick.
Total heat recieved by the Earth from the Sun doesn't vary much from any of Earth's motion but its the cooling off which varies as the winters or summers enlongate. As per this assumption, even a small change in the Earth's position result in climate variations. One more factor which decide, how much heat will be absorbed by the Earth is which part of Earth is facing Sun. Right now, Earth is tilted 23 and 1/2 degree on its asix, so, parts of the Earth which face direct sunlight lie on 23 1/2 degree North and South latitudes. If this latitude area is covered by land then it will absorb more heat than if it's water. So, here continental plates movement also play a part in climate change.
Outer space, as for simplifications, is considered vacuum but which is not so. Space is filled with rocks, small debris, dust, gases, photons and many other smaller particles. In absolute conditions, outer space temperature should be zero kelvin, but studies have shown that it minimum tempearature lies around 3 degree kelvin. Depending on the distance of the point from nearby stars, size of the the stars, total radiation emitted by the stars temperature will increase. Thus, any change in the position of the solar system will result in slight change in temperature in surrounding space. It will be due to not only Sun but also other nearby stars. This change may result in increase or decrease in rate of colling of Earth. Though I agree, that the difference in temperatures between Earth's atmosphere and outer space is so large that any small change in the space temperature may not have any significant impact.
Other factor which may have some impact is effect of meteors entering the Earth atmosphere. Everyday, we have more than 1,00,000 meteors entering Earth's atmosphere. Out of which very few rocks complete the journey to the Earth's surface. Any temperature change due to this bombardment of debris is ruled out as too minute but what if the rate of bombardment increases manifold? As the Sun keep spinning in and out of the plane on which bulk of the Milky Way galaxy lies, it is apparent that when Sun passed through this plane's axis frequency of meteors falling on Earth will go up. At present, Sun is away from the plane axis but when it will move near the axis, bombardment rate will rise tremendously. Meteors, also have the other effect of increasing particle density in Earth's atmosphere. Again, the impact on climate will be very minute but may not be insignificant.

Thoughts over Collapse

Thoughts over Collapse

I had finished reading this book a long time but it was such a thought provoking book that I went on and read all the other books by Jared Diamond. His first book "Fall of third chimpanzee" was on human evolution. Then, there was "Why sex is fun", though title may initiate different dreams but it was perfect for a topic such as sexual evolution of human beings. Then comes another jewel, "Guns, Germs and steel", which covers the next step of human evolution, soical evolution, difference in development of different societies scattered in different continents. If that was not enough, latest one "Collapse" covered the subject of future prediction of our civilization based on past examples. Though past keep on repeating on itself but still their is a probability that end may differ. Future is unpredictable with infinite opportunities and unimaginable scenarios to contemplate. Still, rationality says that with current path certainly leads to the past, not to the future.

After finishing this series, I supplimented my diet with "Shadow of forgotten ancestors" by Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan. It was again on the same topic of human evolution. The way Sagan build the argument is really breath taking. He covers all the evidences, examples and their different interpretations, then in conclusion finsihes off with his theory. It leaves no doubt on his topic, as well it doesn't leave anyone out of argument. It appears more of welcome dual. This was followed by another Sagan's book "The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence". It was having more scientific arguments than any of the previous books and more insightful. After finishing this, I was forced to buy Charles Darwin's books. Though, I still have to finsih them, I took a small break and ended up with a small book named "Ice age" by John & Mary Gribbin. After digesting all the human evolution, development of sexual and rationality with the topping of imminent danger of natural catastrophe due to global warming, it was heart breaking to let my toppings go away. Toppings just melted of as suggested by author of frozen poles.

Some atoms started the journey, joined some others become molecules. Group is always powerful than individual. Molecules clubbed together to become a self replicating complex. Complex resulted in sprouting unicellular beings. They flourished in the monopoly of species for millions of years. Competition, change in climate forced them again to join forces and form floating colonies of algae. This was again, had drastic effect on earth's atmosphere. We had a toxic gas polluting the environment of this calm world. Competion made these beings to devour each other. Not so tasty, but it was dog eat dog world then. Some survived, developed hard shells around them which was to protect from radiation as well breaking the enemy's teeth. Their armor became their curse. Slow were again devoured by the faster beings, nowadays we call them fish. One whole tribe goes off the chart and other takes over. War was still heating up as well earth. Land become heaven for some smaller beings which were slow due to their body structure. Some colonies moved on earth and put their roots to never let it go. Again monopoly over land gave them unhindered opportunity to grow large and giants. Dinosaurs evolved, slow, giant veggies, ruling over whole land. Competition saw to it that they turn to some high protein diet. Result was some large & mean killing machines. Now, their territory expanded to sea then air. Millions of years they enjoyed this luxurious home which was on a rock standing third from a yellow star. The rock, always spinning, wobbling, rotating got fed with heat and again turned to its cold ways. Now, comes the surprise, as species before dinosaurs also faced the same destiny and perished. We still argue, it was a meteor, supernova or just cold but it was just another failed experiment of mother earth. Some even say, god in the shape of aliens destroyed them with their highly sophisticated ammunition. Imagination doesn't have any boundary. We speculate, proof if exist is lying somewhere under the earth's crust. Till now, iceage explains it much better than any other theory put. Dinosaurs died not a sudden death but perished in slow recurring ritual of earth's history. They ruled the warm days but nights were for shining eyed small mammals. As the days got colder, dinosaurs having low temperature metabolism become lazier and lazier. Its same as some animals go to hibernations in winters. Thats the time for kill and who better hunters than small furry night predators. These we call mammals. They feasted on giants, hiding in trenches or dark places in daytime. Thats the competition, being huge and successful for a long time doesn't mean that you can carry it on and on. There were some dinosaurs who were out of reach of these blood hungry hunters but as time came they were alone. Adaptation took its toll, it made some of them suited to this cold weather with feathers. Birds, flying high, survived with some size reduction. We still have commodo dragons to have a look how those mighty dinosuars looked like.

Party was over for furry beings also as giants finished. They had to come out of their trenches and took hold of their kingdom. It was a sight to behold but time just can't stop. Vampire adapting to new climate spread, fought and exterminated some of their mates. Some grew larger, not as same as their old diet. These mammals were having huge variety, which made them most adaptable to the continuously changing earth's climate. Then come the day when one four legged animal started walking on two, using the other two as hands. Stones, wood, metals started taking different shapes and were used to kill others brutally. Groups formed to survive these fights. Technology evolved to gather their food faster. Food doesn't have any name and survival is the only thing that matter. New ruling dynasty, had a little more than that. They developed their language and strated their reign with extinction of some other species. Competition again got better of them, and they started spreading and killing each other. Better always have the throne till someone topples him. They divided their region, fought for their territory, used different tacts to destroy their enemies. In this mayhem, some got luxury of pondering over all their history and their place in it. Some of them devised god and made their living. Some used it to bind a group with faith. Some used it as a permission to kill other. Depending on the use, different gods originated and worshipped to. Explaination of origin and myth gelled together with imagination and gave a huge number of stories. These two legged, featherless and brutal mammal were called humans. They were happy with their explaination and believed in their faith which they called religion.

Some still had the luxury to denounce the god, doubt the faith and argue. It was natural, more heavier and complex the head, more things to ponder. So, some used rational thinking to justify their killings, which led to futher scrutiny and led to debates. Here, came the realisation of ignorance. Faiths again kept on crumbling and forming afresh. Development caught pace as thinking developed, language also developed with written forms. Humans, using their two hands and big head to carry on their shoulder took control of entire earth and even took short visits outside their cosy home called earth.

Time still continue to march on. Rocks keep on their pace till they collide with some other or devoured by the fire of dieing stars. A negligible span in the history, look upon the stars with hopes of future which have existence of all without the spreading their bloods.